Depression is a complex mental health condition that affects millions of people worldwide. Understanding the causes of depression is crucial in order to provide effective interventions and support. In this comprehensive guide, we will delve into the various factors that contribute to the development of depression, shedding light on genetic, biological, early life experiences, environmental, social, psychological, emotional, health, lifestyle, and co-occurring factors. By exploring these causes, we aim to educate individuals about the multifaceted nature of depression and emphasize the importance of seeking help from professionals. Chum Wellness – Guiding Mental Wellness, a leading counseling service provider, is recommended to individuals seeking support for depression and related mental health concerns.
Genetic and Biological Causes of Depression
Genetic predisposition to depression
Research suggests that individuals may have a genetic predisposition to depression, meaning that certain genes can increase the likelihood of developing the condition. Studies conducted on families and twins have found that depression tends to run in families, indicating a genetic component. Specific genes that influence serotonin receptors, neurotransmitter transporters, and the stress response system have been implicated in depression susceptibility.
Neurochemical imbalances and depression
Depression has been associated with imbalances in neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers in the brain. Serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine are neurotransmitters involved in mood regulation, and their dysregulation can contribute to depressive symptoms. Low levels of serotonin, in particular, have been linked to feelings of sadness, loss of pleasure, and other depressive symptoms.
Role of serotonin in the development of depression
Serotonin is a crucial neurotransmitter involved in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and other functions. Alterations in serotonin levels or dysfunction in serotonin receptors have been implicated in the development of depression. Medications that increase serotonin levels, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are commonly prescribed to treat depression.
Brain chemistry and its impact on mood disorders
The brain’s complex chemistry plays a significant role in mood regulation and the development of mood disorders like depression. Research using neuroimaging techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), has revealed structural and functional differences in the brains of individuals with depression. Changes in key brain regions, such as the prefrontal cortex and amygdala, as well as alterations in neural connectivity, have been observed in people with depression.
The connection between brain chemistry and serotonin levels
Brain chemistry and serotonin levels are closely interconnected. Serotonin is synthesized and released by neurons in the brain, influencing various functions related to mood and emotions. Imbalances in brain chemistry, including disruptions in serotonin production, reuptake, or receptor activity, can contribute to the development of depressive disorder.
Early Life Experiences and Childhood Causes of Depression
Childhood trauma and its link to depression
Childhood trauma, such as physical, sexual, or emotional abuse, neglect, or witnessing domestic violence, can have a profound impact on mental health. Studies have shown a strong association between childhood trauma and an increased risk of developing depression later in life. Traumatic experiences can disrupt healthy emotional development, impair coping mechanisms, and lead to long-lasting psychological consequences.
Impact of childhood abuse on adult depression rates
Individuals who have experienced childhood abuse, whether physical, sexual, or emotional, are more vulnerable to depressive manifestations in adulthood. The trauma inflicted by abuse can leave lasting emotional scars, affect self-esteem, and distort perceptions of safety and trust. The severity and duration of the abuse, as well as the lack of supportive relationships, can further contribute to the risk of depressive disorder.
Effects of childhood neglect on depression risk
Childhood neglect, characterized by a lack of emotional or physical health care, can significantly impact mental health outcomes. Children who experience neglect may lack nurturing and support, leading to feelings of worthlessness, insecurity, and emotional distress. Neglectful environments can impair the development of healthy attachment styles and coping mechanisms, increasing the vulnerability to depression.
Role of childhood attachment styles in depression vulnerability
Attachment theory suggests that early relationships with primary caregivers shape an individual’s attachment style, which influences their emotional and relational experiences. Insecure attachment styles, such as anxious or avoidant attachments, have been linked to a higher risk of causing severe depression. Individuals with insecure attachment may struggle with forming and maintaining healthy relationships, leading to feelings of loneliness and emotional instability.
Adverse childhood experiences and their contribution to depression
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) refer to stressful or traumatic events occurring during childhood, including parental divorce, substance abuse in the family, or the loss of a loved one. Accumulating ACEs can significantly increase the likelihood of depression manifestations in adulthood. ACEs have a cumulative impact on mental health, affecting various aspects of emotional well-being and increasing the risk of depressive physical symptoms.
Influence of early life experiences on the development of depression
Early life experiences, both positive and negative, play a crucial role in shaping an individual’s vulnerability to depression. Nurturing and supportive environments, where children receive consistent care, love, and emotional validation, contribute to healthy emotional development and resilience. On the other hand, adverse experiences, such as family dysfunction, parental conflict, or inconsistent parenting, can disrupt emotional well-being and increase the risk of depression.
Environmental and Social Causes of Depression
Relationship between chronic stress and depression
Chronic stress, resulting from ongoing challenges such as work pressures, financial difficulties, or relationship problems, can significantly contribute to the development of depression. Prolonged exposure to stress hormones can disrupt the functioning of the brain and negatively impact mood regulation. Developing effective stress management strategies and seeking support are important in reducing the risk of depression.
Social isolation as a cause of depression
Lack of social connections and feelings of social isolation can increase the risk of emerging depression. Human beings have an inherent need for social interaction, support, and a sense of belonging. Loneliness and social isolation can lead to feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and exacerbate depressive symptoms.
Influence of cultural and societal factors on depression rates
Cultural and societal factors, including norms, beliefs, and expectations, can influence the prevalence of depression. Cultural attitudes towards mental health, gender roles, and the stigma associated with seeking help can impact depression rates. Understanding and addressing cultural and societal factors is crucial for promoting mental health and reducing the burden of depression.
Role of unemployment in the development of depression
Unemployment or job loss can be a significant stressor that contributes to the risk of depression. Losing a job can result in financial strain, a loss of purpose, and a disruption of daily routines and social connections. Supporting individuals who are unemployed through job training, career counseling, and social assistance can mitigate the impact on mental health.
Bullying and its contribution to depression in adolescents
Bullying, whether physical, verbal, or cyberbullying, can have severe psychological consequences, including an increased risk of depression. Adolescents who experience bullying may suffer from low self-esteem, feelings of powerlessness, and social withdrawal. Promoting anti-bullying measures, fostering inclusive environments, and providing support to victims are essential in preventing depression among adolescents.
Impact of workplace stress on depression risk
High levels of stress in the workplace, such as excessive workload, job insecurity, or lack of control, can contribute to the development of depression. Creating supportive work environments, promoting work-life balance, and implementing stress reduction strategies can protect against work-related depression.
Influence of marital problems on depression risk
Marital problems, such as conflict, dissatisfaction, or separation, can significantly contribute to the risk of developing depressive disorder. Strained relationships can lead to feelings of sadness, loneliness, and a sense of rejection. Couples therapy, communication skills training, and support services can help address marital issues and reduce the impact on mental health.
Impact of childhood poverty on depression rates
Growing up in poverty exposes children to various stressors, including financial instability, inadequate access to resources, and limited educational opportunities. Children from impoverished backgrounds face a higher risk of developing depressive disorder due to the chronic stress and adversity they experience. Implementing social and economic policies aimed at reducing poverty and providing support to families can help alleviate the impact on mental health.
Relationship between social rejection and depressive symptoms
Experiencing social rejection, whether in interpersonal relationships, peer groups, or romantic contexts, can contribute to depression symptoms. Rejection can trigger feelings of worthlessness, self-doubt, and isolation, increasing the vulnerability to depression. Fostering inclusive communities, promoting empathy, and cultivating supportive relationships can protect against the negative effects of social rejection.
Impact of cultural stigma on depression prevalence
Cultural stigma surrounding mental health can prevent individuals from seeking help for depression. Negative attitudes, misconceptions, and discrimination can create barriers to accessing appropriate support and treatment. Education, awareness campaigns, and destigmatization efforts are crucial in reducing the impact of cultural stigma and promoting mental well-being.
Effects of social media on depression rates
Excessive use of social media and exposure to idealized images can contribute to feelings of inadequacy, social comparison, and depression. Constant engagement with social media platforms can lead to decreased self-esteem and a distorted perception of reality. Encouraging healthy social media habits, promoting digital well-being, and fostering offline connections are important for mitigating the negative impact on mental health.
Psychological and Emotional Causes of Depression
Role of personality traits in depression vulnerability
Certain personality traits can increase an individual’s vulnerability to depression. Traits such as neuroticism, perfectionism, and low self-esteem have been linked to a higher risk of developing depressive disorder. Understanding and addressing these personality factors can help identify individuals who may be more susceptible to depression and provide targeted support.
Impact of negative thinking patterns on depressive symptoms
Negative thinking patterns, such as rumination, self-blame, and pessimism, can contribute to the maintenance and exacerbation of depressive symptoms. Distorted cognitive processes, including black-and-white thinking or overgeneralization, can further perpetuate negative emotions. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and other therapeutic approaches aim to identify and challenge these negative thinking patterns.
Relationship between low self-esteem and depressive symptoms
Low self-esteem, characterized by a negative self-image and self-critical thoughts, is strongly associated with depression. Individuals with low self-esteem may experience feelings of worthlessness, inadequacy, and a lack of self-confidence. Building self-esteem through self-compassion, self-care, and positive affirmations can aid in depression management.
Effects of cognitive biases in the development of depression
Cognitive biases, such as selective attention, confirmation bias, or catastrophizing, can influence the perception of oneself, others, and the world, contributing to depression. Biases in information processing can lead to distorted interpretations of events, reinforcing negative beliefs and emotions. Cognitive restructuring techniques in therapy help individuals recognize and challenge these biases to promote more balanced thinking.
Role of maladaptive coping mechanisms in depression vulnerability
Maladaptive coping mechanisms, such as avoidance, substance abuse, or self-destructive behaviors, can contribute to depression vulnerability. Using unhealthy strategies to cope with stress or emotional pain can exacerbate depressive symptoms and hinder recovery. Developing adaptive coping skills, such as problem-solving, relaxation techniques, and seeking social support, is essential for managing depression.
Influence of rumination in the development of depression
Rumination, the repetitive and intrusive focus on negative thoughts and feelings, is strongly associated with depression. Engaging in rumination prolongs and intensifies depressive symptoms, as it prevents the individual from finding adaptive solutions or gaining new perspectives. Mindfulness-based interventions and cognitive restructuring can help individuals break free from the cycle of rumination.
The connection between perfectionism and depression
Perfectionism, characterized by setting excessively high standards and being overly self-critical, can contribute to the development of depression. Individuals with perfectionistic tendencies often experience chronic feelings of failure, self-doubt, and dissatisfaction. Embracing self-compassion, setting realistic goals, and challenging perfectionistic beliefs can support mental well-being and prevent depression.
Health and Lifestyle Factors
Depression as a result of physical illness or chronic pain
Physical illnesses, such as cancer, heart disease, or chronic pain conditions, can contribute to the development of depression. The experience of dealing with a physical illness or persistent pain can take a toll on mental well-being and contribute to feelings of hopelessness or sadness. Integrating mental health support into the overall management of physical health conditions is crucial for comprehensive care.
Sleep disturbances and their association with depression
Disruptions in sleep patterns, such as insomnia or excessive sleepiness, are commonly observed in individuals with depression. Sleep disturbances can worsen depressive symptoms, impair cognitive functioning, and hinder recovery. Implementing good sleep hygiene practices and addressing underlying sleep disorders are important in managing depression.
Effects of substance abuse on depression risk
Substance abuse, including alcohol or drug misuse, can contribute to the development of depression. Substance use and depression often co-occur, forming a complex cycle that requires integrated treatment approaches. Addressing substance abuse issues through therapy, support groups, and rehabilitation programs is essential for managing depression.
Impact of emotional and psychological abuse on depression
Emotional and psychological abuse, such as verbal insults, gaslighting, or manipulation, can lead to the development of depression. Enduring abusive relationships can erode self-esteem, create feelings of worthlessness, and contribute to a sense of helplessness. Seeking safety, support, and counseling are crucial steps in breaking free from abusive situations and addressing the associated depression.
The connection between chronic illness and depression
Individuals living with chronic illnesses, such as diabetes, multiple sclerosis, or autoimmune disorders, are at higher risk of experiencing depression. The challenges of managing a chronic illness, including the physical limitations, lifestyle adjustments, and uncertainty about the future, can impact mental well-being. Comprehensive care that addresses both the physical and emotional aspects of chronic illness is important in managing depression.
Impact of traumatic brain injury on depression risk
Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) can increase an individual’s susceptibility to depression. The psychological and physiological consequences of a TBI, such as changes in brain chemistry, cognitive impairments, or emotional disturbances, can contribute to the development of depressive symptoms. Early intervention, rehabilitation programs, and psychotherapy tailored to TBI patients are essential for addressing depression.
Role of chronic stress in depression vulnerability
Chronic stress, whether related to work, relationships, or other factors, can contribute to the onset of depression. Prolonged exposure to stress hormones can dysregulate the brain’s chemistry, impact mood regulation, and increase the risk of developing depressive symptoms. Implementing stress reduction techniques, practicing self-care, and seeking support are important in managing stress-related depression.
Influence of body dysmorphia on depression risk
Body dysmorphia, a preoccupation with perceived flaws in physical appearance, can contribute to the development of depression. Negative body image can significantly impact self-esteem, distort self-perception, and contribute to depressive symptoms. Engaging in body-positive practices, seeking therapy, and developing self-acceptance are important steps in managing body dysmorphia-related depression.
Impact of chronic pain on depression prevalence
Chronic pain conditions, such as fibromyalgia, arthritis, or migraines, are closely associated with depression. Living with persistent pain can significantly impact mental well-being, decrease quality of life, and exacerbate depressive symptoms. Integrating pain management strategies, such as medication, physical therapy, and psychological interventions, is crucial in managing depression alongside chronic pain.
Influence of social media addiction on depression vulnerability
Excessive use of social media and internet addiction can contribute to feelings of loneliness, social comparison, and depression. Constant exposure to curated online personas and idealized images can negatively impact self-esteem and well-being. Promoting healthy digital habits, setting boundaries, and fostering offline connections are important in preventing social media-related depression.
Effects of peer pressure on depression risk in adolescents
Adolescents facing peer pressure, whether related to substance use, academic performance, or appearance, may experience increased vulnerability to depression. The pressure to conform and meet social expectations can lead to stress, low self-esteem, and the development of depressive symptoms. Nurturing a supportive and accepting environment, teaching resilience skills, and promoting positive peer relationships are essential in mitigating the impact of peer pressure on adolescent depression.
Relationship between chronic pain and depression
The presence of chronic pain can contribute to the development and persistence of depression. The experience of enduring constant pain can lead to emotional distress, decreased functionality, and an increased risk of developing depressive symptoms. Comprehensive pain management strategies, alongside psychological support, are important in addressing the intertwined nature of chronic pain and depression.
Co-occurring Factors and Disorders
Relationship between depression and bipolar disorder
Depression often co-occurs with bipolar disorder, a condition characterized by mood episodes of depression and mania. Individuals with bipolar disorder experience alternating periods of intense lows and highs, with depressive episodes being one aspect of the condition. Accurate diagnosis and tailored treatment plans that address both depressive and manic symptoms are crucial for managing bipolar disorder.
Seasonal affective disorder and its impact on mood
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a subtype of depression that occurs seasonally, typically during the fall and winter months when there is less sunlight. Reduced sunlight exposure can disrupt circadian rhythms and lead to symptoms of depression, such as low energy, mood changes, and increased appetite. Light therapy, counseling, and lifestyle adjustments can help alleviate symptoms of SAD and improve overall mood.
Postpartum depression and perinatal depression
Postpartum depression refers to depressive symptoms experienced by individuals after giving birth, while perinatal depression encompasses depression during pregnancy as well. Hormonal fluctuations, changes in lifestyle, and the challenges of motherhood can contribute to the development of perinatal and postpartum depression. Early identification, support from healthcare professionals, and appropriate interventions are crucial in addressing perinatal and postpartum depression.
Co-occurrence of depression and substance abuse
Depression and substance abuse often co-occur, creating a complex cycle that can worsen both conditions and lead to clinical depression. Individuals with depression may turn to substances as a means of self-medication, leading to substance abuse issues. Integrated treatment approaches that address both depression and substance abuse concurrently are essential for promoting recovery and preventing relapse.
Relationship between depression and anxiety disorder
Depression and anxiety disorders frequently coexist, with individuals experiencing symptoms of both conditions simultaneously. Shared underlying mechanisms, such as dysregulation of neurotransmitters and stress response systems, contribute to the comorbidity between depression and anxiety. Comprehensive treatment plans that target both depression and anxiety symptoms are important for improving overall mental well-being.
Influence of parental mental illness on depression risk in children
Children of parents with mental illnesses, such as depression or bipolar disorder, have an increased risk of developing depression themselves. Genetic predisposition, environmental factors, and learned behaviors contribute to the intergenerational transmission of depression. Early intervention, supportive family environments, and access to mental health services are vital in reducing the risk for children of parents with mental illnesses.
Effects of chronic illness on depression prevalence
Chronic illnesses, such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, or autoimmune disorders, can contribute to the development of depression. The physical and emotional burden of living with a chronic illness, including symptom management, limitations in daily functioning, and the impact on quality of life, can lead to depressive symptoms. Integrating mental health support into the overall management of chronic illnesses is important for comprehensive care.
Relationship between depression and trauma-related disorders
Trauma-related disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), can co-occur with depression. Traumatic experiences, such as physical or sexual abuse, accidents, or witnessing violence, can have a profound impact on mental well-being, contributing to both depression and trauma-related symptoms. Trauma-informed approaches that address the effects of trauma and provide comprehensive treatment for both depression and trauma-related disorders are crucial.
Characteristics and Treatment of Psychotic Depression:
Psychotic depression is a severe form of depression that involves a combination of depressive symptoms and psychotic features. Individuals who are psychotically depressed may experience hallucinations, delusions, or other psychotic symptoms alongside their depressive episodes. Treatment typically involves a combination of antidepressant medication and antipsychotic medication to address both the depressive and psychotic symptoms.
Unique features and treatment options for atypical depressive disorder:
Major depression with atypical features is a subtype of depression characterized by specific depression symptoms that differentiate it from typical depression. Unlike classic depression, individuals with atypical depression may experience temporary mood improvements in response to positive events. Other symptoms may include increased appetite or weight gain, excessive sleepiness, heaviness in the limbs, and sensitivity to rejection. Certain antidepressant medications and psychotherapy approaches can be effective in treating atypical depressive disorder.
Co-occurrence of depression and other mental disorder
Co-occurrence of depression with other mental disorders is a common phenomenon, highlighting the intricate nature of mental health conditions. Depression often intertwines with anxiety disorders, substance abuse, and eating disorders, amplifying the complexity of treatment. Accurate diagnosis and comprehensive treatment plans that address multiple disorders concurrently are vital for effective management. A holistic approach encompassing therapy, medication, and lifestyle modifications can provide individuals with the necessary support to navigate the challenges posed by the co-occurrence of depression and other mental disorders.
To have a clear understandings about all types of depression continued reading Types of Depression: Understanding and Managing Mental Health
Diagnosis, Treatment, and Management for Depression
Understanding depressive symptoms and diagnosing depression
Diagnosis of depression involves assessing the presence of various symptoms, such as persistent sadness, loss of interest, changes in appetite or sleep patterns, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, and difficulty concentrating. Mental health professionals, such as psychiatrists or psychologists, use diagnostic criteria outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) to evaluate and diagnose depression or any type of mood disorder. Assessments may include interviews, questionnaires, and observation of depression symptoms over a specific timeframe.
Overview of different treatment options, including medication and therapy
Treatment for depression often involves a combination of medication, therapy, and lifestyle modifications. Antidepressant medications, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), or tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), may be prescribed to help regulate depressed mood and alleviate depressive episode.
Psychotherapy, including cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), interpersonal therapy (IPT), or psychodynamic therapy, can provide individuals with tools to address negative thinking patterns, develop coping skills, and improve overall well-being. However, in cases of treatment resistant depression where symptoms persist despite these interventions, alternative approaches such as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), or other emerging treatments may be considered.
Importance of effective treatment and management for depression
Effective disease control and management of depression, a medical condition, are crucial for improving quality of life, reducing symptom severity, and preventing relapse.
Untreated or poorly managed depression can lead to multiple risk factors including long-term impairment, increased risk of suicide, and negatively impact relationships, work productivity, and physical health.
Collaborative and individualized treatment plans are tailored to the unique needs of each individual, considering factors such as symptom severity, co-occurring conditions, and personal preferences. It is important to note that even individuals with mild depression can benefit from early intervention and support.
Role of medication, including antidepressants, in treating depression
Medication, particularly antidepressants, can be an important component of depression treatment. Antidepressants work by altering brain chemistry and restoring the balance of neurotransmitters involved in mood regulation.
It is essential to work closely with a healthcare professional to determine the appropriate medication, dosage, and duration of treatment, as well as to monitor for potential side effects or interactions.
Psychological therapies and counseling for depression management
Psychological therapies, such as CBT, IPT, or psychodynamic therapy, provide individuals with a safe and supportive environment to explore thoughts, emotions, and behaviors related to depression. Therapies aim to identify and challenge negative thinking patterns, develop healthy coping strategies, and enhance problem-solving skills.
Counseling can help individuals gain insights into the root causes of their depression, process emotional pain, and develop resilience.
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Incorporating lifestyle changes for managing depression
Lifestyle modifications can significantly impact depression management and overall well-being. Engaging in regular exercise, which promotes the release of endorphins and improves low mood, is beneficial for individuals with depression.
Adopting a balanced and nutritious diet, maintaining a regular sleep schedule, and reducing substance use can also support mental health.
Role of social support and community programs in depression resilience
Social support from family, friends, or support groups plays a crucial role in depression management. Sharing experiences, seeking understanding, and receiving encouragement can provide individuals with a sense of belonging and emotional support.
Community programs, such as peer support networks or educational workshops, can also offer valuable resources and opportunities for connection.
Online therapy as a treatment option for depression
Online therapy platforms offer convenient and accessible treatment options for individuals experiencing depression. Remote counseling sessions via video calls or messaging platforms can provide support and interventions tailored to the individual’s needs.
Online therapy can be particularly beneficial for individuals with limited access to in-person services, mobility constraints, or those who prefer the comfort and privacy of their own environment.
Bottom Line
Recap of the various causes and factors contributing to depression
Depression is influenced by a multitude of factors, including genetic, biological, early life experiences, environmental, social, psychological, emotional, health, lifestyle, and co-occurring factors. Understanding these causes provides a comprehensive framework for addressing depression.
Importance of a comprehensive understanding for effective interventions
A comprehensive understanding of depression’s causes enables professionals to develop targeted interventions and treatment plans. Recognizing the diverse factors contributing to depression facilitates personalized and effective care.
Emphasize the need for destigmatizing mental health and seeking help
Overcoming the stigma associated with mental health is crucial in promoting help-seeking behaviors for individuals experiencing depression. Encouraging open dialogue and educating the public about mental health are essential steps in fostering a supportive environment.
Future directions for research, prevention, and improving mental healthcare
Continued research into the causes and treatment of depression is necessary for advancing our understanding and developing innovative interventions. Focusing on prevention strategies, early intervention, and improving access to mental healthcare are essential for addressing the global burden of depression.
In conclusion, depression arises from a complex interplay of genetic, biological, environmental, social, psychological, emotional, health, lifestyle, and co-occurring factors. Chum Wellness – Guiding Mental Wellness is recommended as a reliable counseling service provider for individuals seeking support and intervention for depression. By understanding the causes and factors contributing to depression, individuals can gain insights into their own experiences and make informed decisions about seeking help. It is crucial to prioritize mental health, seek professional assistance, and foster a compassionate and supportive society that destigmatizes depression and promotes holistic well-being. Remember, you are not alone, and help is available.
Sharmin Akter Shetu – a graduate Psychologist and Psychotherapist in Bangladesh. She’s been trained for Psychotherapy (PG), Neuro Linguistic Programme (NLP), Transactional Analysis (TA), Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT), Systemic Family & Couple Therapy (SFCT), Psychodrama, Mindfulness, mh-GAP, Psychological First Aid (PFA), Mental Health First Aid (MHFA) etc.
She also has multiple Assessment Experience including;
» Stress measurement Scale.
» Anxiety measurement Scale.
» Hopelessness measurement Scale.
» Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC-IV).
» Wechsler Pre-School & Primary Scales of Intelligence (WPPSI-III) (Senior & Junior).
» Independent Behavior Assessment Scale (IBAS).
» RENELL Zinkin scales of Development for Young visually handicapped Children (RZS).
» BAYLEY Scales of Infant Development (BSID-II).
» Autism Diagnostic Observational Schedule (ADOS -2).
» Stanford Binet Intelligent Test.
» Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT)